The second half of the nineteenth century saw the rise of degeneration theory, formulated by the French psychiatrist Bénédict Morel (1809-1873) and Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours (1804-1884). Morel sought to understand the increase in crime, sickness and mental illness in France. He maintained that psychopathological abnormalities initially appeared as slight abnormalities, which became aggravated in subsequent generations, ultimately resulting in sterility and imbecility. In broader terms, degeneration theory framed in biological terms the social specter of the ‘poor’, whom, it was feared, through their unrestrained reproduction, hereditary diseases, and criminal tendencies would swamp the middle and upper classes and lead to the ruin of civilization.
Degeneration theory spread widely. For psychiatrists, it provided a linkage between psychiatry and wider societal concerns. In Germany, it was taken up by Griesinger, who held that there was a great deal of truth in Morel’s judicious work.[1] It was also championed by Ludwig Wille.[2] While some figures (such as Bleuler) distanced themselves from it, the broader interest and concern with hereditary remained. This is evidenced by the admissions forms in Jung’s time, at the Burghölzli, which contain page dedicated to ascertaining the hereditary background of the patient.
The period in question in Switzerland was marked by rapid industrialization, the development of the railways and growth of urban centers. Zurich developed into a central political, cultural and economic hub, in part driven by the textile and financial industries. This was accompanied by an asylum building boom. Between 1870 and 1899, fourteen new institutions were established in Switzerland. However, demand far outstripped supply. There were widespread concern and debate as to whether the incidence of insanity was on the increase. Forel commented, “Insane asylums and nerve institutions grow like mushrooms. Nervousness, mental insufficiency, defects of character, weakness of will, and nervous disturbances of all sorts are racing to burden and complicate our social life and make mankind miserable. There is a corresponding increase in the number of suicides.”[3] Urban life was held to be a seedbed for alcoholism, prostitution, criminality and insanity, which led to widespread social concern. Discussions of the rise of insanity became central to a discourse of social crisis. A survey in 1888 found that 1% of the population of Kanton Zurich was mentally ill.[4]
[1] Griesinger, Mental Pathology and Therapeutics, p. 151.
[2] Ludwig Wille, “Über die durch Vererbung erworbenen neuro- und psychopatischen Zustände,” Correspondenz Blatt Für Schweizer Ärzte 6 (1876), p. 641.
[3] Auguste Forel, Hygiene of the Nerves & Mind in Health and Disease, trans. Austin Aikens (London: John Murray, 1907 (1903)), p. 228.
[4] “Die Ergebnisse der Irrenzählung vom 1. Dezember 1888” in Statische Mittheilungen betreffend den Kanton Zürich, ed. Kantonalen statischen Bureau (Zürich: Orell Füssli, 1889).
